Coal and Petroleum

Coal and Petroleum: Complete Guide for Class 8 CBSE Science

Introduction to Coal and Petroleum

Coal and petroleum are two of the most important fossil fuels that power our modern world. These exhaustible natural resources were formed millions of years ago from the remains of living organisms and are crucial sources of energy for cooking, transportation, electricity generation, and industrial processes.

Understanding coal and petroleum is essential for Class 8 CBSE students as it connects geology, chemistry, environmental science, and practical everyday applications. This comprehensive guide covers their formation, types, refining processes, products, environmental impacts, and conservation strategies.

What Are Fossil Fuels?

Fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources formed from the dead remains of living organisms (fossils) over millions of years under specific conditions of heat and pressure. The three main fossil fuels are:

1. Coal - Formed from dead vegetation
2. Petroleum - Formed from marine organisms
3. Natural Gas - Often found with petroleum deposits

Exhaustible vs Inexhaustible Resources

Formation of Coal (Carbonisation)

How Coal is Formed from Dead Vegetation

The formation of coal is a fascinating geological process called carbonisation that occurred over approximately 300 million years ago during the Carboniferous period.

Step-by-Step Coal Formation Process:

Step 1: Ancient Forests (300 Million Years Ago)

• Dense forests existed in low-lying wetland areas
• Giant ferns, mosses, and primitive plants grew abundantly
• These areas were swampy and had limited oxygen

Step 2: Burial of Vegetation

• Natural processes like earthquakes, floods, and volcanic activity occurred
• Forests got buried under soil, sand, clay, and rock layers
• Dead plants accumulated at the bottom of swamps

Step 3: Compression Under Pressure

• More layers of sediment deposited over buried vegetation
• Increased weight created enormous pressure
• Plants were compressed deeper into the earth

Step 4: Heat and Chemical Transformation

• Temperature increased as depth increased
• Absence of oxygen prevented normal decomposition
• Biochemical changes occurred due to bacterial action
• Oxygen and hydrogen were released
• Carbon concentration increased

Step 5: Coal Formation

• Under high pressure and temperature over millions of years
• Dead vegetation slowly converted to coal
• The process concentrated carbon content
• Moisture and impurities were removed progressively

This slow geological process of converting dead vegetation into coal through heat, pressure, and time is specifically called carbonisation because it concentrates carbon from the original plant material.

Types of Coal and Their Uses

Coal is classified into different types or ranks based on carbon content, age, heat content, and quality. The older the coal, generally the higher the carbon content and heating value.

Complete Coal Classification Table

Detailed Characteristics and Uses

1. Lignite (Brown Coal)

• Youngest and lowest rank of coal
• Retains some characteristics of original wood
• High moisture makes it less efficient
• Burns with significant smoke and pollution
• Primarily used in power plants located near mines
• Not economical to transport long distances

2. Sub-bituminous Coal

• Also called "black lignite"
• Intermediate stage between lignite and bituminous
• Better heating value than lignite
• Used for industrial boilers and power generation

3. Bituminous Coal

• Most abundant and commonly used coal type
• Good balance of heat content and availability
• Used extensively for electricity generation
• Source material for producing coke (used in steel manufacturing)
• Suitable for industrial heating applications

4. Anthracite Coal

• Highest quality and most valuable coal
• Burns cleanly with little smoke
• Produces maximum heat per unit weight
• Limited reserves make it more expensive
• Preferred for residential heating
• Nearly pure carbon content

The Coal Rank Progression

As coal ages and undergoes more pressure and heat:

Peat → Lignite → Sub-bituminous → Bituminous → Anthracite

(Not coal) → (Lowest rank) → → → (Highest rank)

Products of Coal Processing

When coal is processed industrially, it yields several valuable products:

1. Coke

Definition: Coke is a solid, tough, porous, and black carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulphur bituminous coal.

Production Process:

• Bituminous coal is heated in the absence of oxygen
• Heated to temperatures as high as 1,000°C (1,832°F)
• Process called destructive distillation
• Volatile constituents are driven off
• Fixed carbon and residual ash fuse together

Characteristics:

• Almost pure form of carbon (98% carbon)
• Hard and porous structure
• Burns with intense heat
• Produces very little smoke

Uses:

• Manufacturing of steel (primary use)
• Extraction of metals in metallurgy
• Fuel in thermal power plants
• Previously used in steam railway engines

2. Coal Tar

Definition: Coal tar is a brown or black liquid of extremely high viscosity obtained as a by-product when coal is carbonized to make coke.

Characteristics:

• Thick, viscous liquid
• Strong smell of naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons
• Complex mixture of about 200 substances
• Contains phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic compounds

Uses:

• Previously used for road surfacing (now largely replaced by bitumen)
• Source of many chemicals
• Manufacturing of synthetic dyes
• Production of drugs and explosives
• Making photographic materials
• Manufacturing of paints
• Production of roofing materials
• Pesticide production
• Source of naphthalene (mothballs)

3. Coal Gas

Definition: Coal gas is a fuel gas obtained during the processing of coal to get coke.

Characteristics:

• Mixture of combustible gases
• Contains hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide
• Produced during carbonization

Uses:

• Fuel in industries situated near coal processing plants
• Previously used for street lighting and home lighting (before electricity)
• Industrial heating applications

Petroleum: Formation and Characteristics

Formation of Petroleum and Natural Gas

Petroleum was formed from organisms living in ancient seas approximately 100-200 million years ago.

Formation Process:

Step 1: Ancient Marine Life

• Microscopic plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton)
• Lived in ancient oceans millions of years ago
• Died and settled at the ocean floor

Step 2: Sediment Burial

• Dead organisms accumulated on the seabed
• Covered by layers of sand, silt, and clay
• Protected from decomposition by lack of oxygen

Step 3: Pressure and Heat Transformation

• More sediment layers deposited over time
• Immense pressure from overlying layers
• Temperature increased with depth
• Chemical transformation occurred over millions of years

Step 4: Oil and Gas Formation

• Organic matter transformed into liquid petroleum and natural gas
• Oil trapped in porous rock formations
• Natural gas often found above petroleum deposits
• Impermeable rock layers prevented escape

Characteristics of Petroleum

• Appearance: Dark oily liquid
• Odor: Unpleasant, distinctive smell
• Composition: Complex mixture of hydrocarbons
• Nature: Called "crude oil" in its natural state
• Nickname: "Black Gold" due to its immense commercial value
• Components: Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, and more

Petroleum Refining Process

Petroleum refining is the process of separating crude oil into its various useful components. This is accomplished through fractional distillation, which separates components based on their different boiling points.

Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

How It Works:

Principle: Different hydrocarbon compounds in petroleum have different boiling points. When heated, they vaporize at different temperatures and can be separated.

Process Steps:

1. Crude Oil Heating
   • Crude petroleum is heated in a furnace
   • Temperature raised to about 400°C
   • Most components vaporize
2. Fractionating Column
   • Vapors enter a tall fractionating tower
   • Tower is hotter at bottom, cooler at top
   • Has multiple collection trays at different heights
3. Vapor Rising and Condensation
   • Hot vapors rise through the column
   • As they rise, they cool gradually
   • Each component condenses at its specific boiling point
4. Collection of Fractions
   • Components with highest boiling points condense first (at bottom)
   • Components with lowest boiling points condense last (at top)
   • Each fraction is collected at specific levels
5. Purification
   • Collected fractions undergo additional processing
   • Removal of impurities like sulphur, nitrogen, and salts
   • Blending to create final products

Petroleum Products and Their Uses

Complete Petroleum Fractions Table

Detailed Product Uses

1. Petroleum Gas (LPG - Liquefied Petroleum Gas)

• Contains mainly butane, propane, ethane, and methane
• Liquefied under pressure for easy storage and transport
• Domestic Use: Cooking in homes (in gas cylinders)
• Industrial Use: Heating, cutting metals
• Chemical Industry: Raw material for plastics production
• Advantages: Clean burning, high calorific value, convenient

2. Petrol (Gasoline)

• Light hydrocarbon mixture
• Motor fuel for internal combustion engines
• Used in cars, motorcycles, small generators
• High octane rating for better engine performance

3. Kerosene (Paraffin Oil)

• Medium-weight hydrocarbon
• Aviation: Jet fuel for aircraft (special grade called "aviation turbine fuel")
• Domestic: Fuel for stoves and lamps (especially in rural areas)
• Agricultural: Fuel for tractors and farm equipment

4. Diesel

• Heavier than petrol, higher energy content
• Used in diesel engines (compression ignition)
• Transportation: Heavy vehicles like trucks, buses, trains
• Agriculture: Tractors and heavy agricultural machinery
• Power Generation: Diesel generators for electricity
• More fuel-efficient than petrol

5. Lubricating Oil

• Reduces friction between moving parts
• Automotive: Engine oil, gear oil
• Industrial: Machinery lubrication
• Functions: Cooling, cleaning, sealing, protection from corrosion

6. Bitumen (Asphalt)

• Heaviest petroleum product
• Primary Use: Road construction and surfacing
• Other Uses: Waterproofing buildings, roofing materials, paints
• Replaced coal tar for road metalling

7. Paraffin Wax

• Solid at room temperature
• Common Uses: Candle making, food packaging (moisture barrier), cosmetics, polishes
• Industrial: Paper coating, electrical insulation

Petrochemicals

Petrochemicals are chemical products derived from petroleum and natural gas. These are used as raw materials for manufacturing a wide range of useful products.

Important Petrochemicals and Their Products:

1. Synthetic Fibers
   • Polyester (clothing, fabrics)
   • Nylon (textiles, ropes)
   • Acrylic (sweaters, blankets)
2. Plastics
   • Polythene (bags, containers)
   • PVC (pipes, flooring)
   • Polypropylene (packaging, automotive parts)
3. Synthetic Rubber
   • Vehicle tires
   • Industrial products
4. Detergents and Soaps
   • Cleaning agents
5. Fertilizers
   • Hydrogen from natural gas is used to produce urea
   • Essential for agriculture
6. Paints and Dyes
   • Synthetic paints
   • Artificial dyes
7. Pharmaceuticals
   • Raw materials for medicines
8. Cosmetics
   • Perfumes, creams, lotions

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a very important fossil fuel found with petroleum deposits or separately.

Characteristics:

• Primarily consists of methane (CH₄)
• Colorless and odorless in pure form
• Lighter than air
• Burns with a clean, blue flame

Storage and Transportation:

• CNG (Compressed Natural Gas): Natural gas compressed to high pressure (200-250 bar) for storage in cylinders
• Pipeline Transport: Most efficient way to transport over long distances
• LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas): Cooled to -162°C for overseas transport

Uses of Natural Gas:

1. Transportation Fuel
   • CNG used in buses, auto-rickshaws, and cars
   • Cleaner alternative to petrol and diesel
   • Reduces air pollution significantly
2. Power Generation
   • Thermal power plants
   • More efficient than coal
   • Lower carbon emissions
3. Domestic Use
   • PNG (Piped Natural Gas) for cooking and heating in homes
4. Industrial Applications
   • Fuel for industrial processes
   • Manufacturing petrochemicals
5. Fertilizer Production
   • Hydrogen extracted from natural gas
   • Used to produce ammonia and urea fertilizers

Natural Gas in India:

Natural gas reserves have been found in:

• Tripura
• Rajasthan
• Maharashtra
• Krishna-Godavari Delta (Andhra Pradesh and Odisha coast)

Why CNG is an Ideal Fuel:

1. Clean Burning: Produces less pollution than petrol/diesel
2. High Efficiency: High calorific value (~55 kJ/g)
3. No Smoke: Burns with smokeless flame
4. No Residue: Leaves no ash after burning
5. Economic: Cost-effective compared to liquid fuels
6. Convenient: Easy to transport through pipelines
7. Safe: Lower risk of spillage

Environmental Impacts: Coal vs Petroleum

Both coal and petroleum are fossil fuels, but they have different environmental impacts. Understanding these differences is crucial for making informed decisions about energy use.

Comparative Environmental Impact Table

Detailed Environmental Concerns

Coal Environmental Problems:

1. Air Quality Degradation
   • Releases unburnt carbon particles (particulate matter PM2.5 and PM10)
   • Causes respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis
   • Reduces visibility (creates smog)
2. Acid Rain
   • Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) + water → sulphuric acid
   • Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) + water → nitric acid
   • Effects: Damages crops, buildings, soil, aquatic life
3. Global Warming
   • Highest CO₂ emissions per unit of energy
   • Major contributor to greenhouse effect
   • Accelerates climate change
4. Coal Mining Impacts
   • Deforestation and habitat destruction
   • Land subsidence
   • Water pollution from mining runoff
   • Displacement of communities
5. Ash Disposal
   • Millions of tons of fly ash produced
   • Requires large disposal areas
   • Can contaminate groundwater

Petroleum Environmental Problems:

1. Carbon Emissions
   • Vehicle emissions major source of urban air pollution
   • Contributes significantly to global warming
   • CO₂, CO, and unburnt hydrocarbons released
2. Urban Air Pollution
   • Vehicular emissions in cities
   • Smog formation
   • Health hazards in metropolitan areas
3. Oil Spills
   • Catastrophic marine ecosystem damage
   • Coating of birds and marine animals with oil
   • Long-term contamination of coastlines
   • Famous examples: Exxon Valdez, Deepwater Horizon
4. Incomplete Combustion
   • Produces carbon monoxide (CO) - toxic gas
   • Causes headaches, dizziness, death in enclosed spaces
   • Particularly dangerous from vehicle exhaust
5. Extraction Impacts
   • Offshore drilling risks
   • Destruction of marine habitats
   • Seismic testing affects marine life

Comparative Benefits for Environment

Natural Gas (CNG/PNG) is better than both:

• Cleanest burning fossil fuel
• 30% less CO₂ than petroleum
• 45% less CO₂ than coal
• No particulate matter or ash
• Minimal sulphur content

Combustion: The Science of Burning

Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen to give off heat and light. It is an exothermic oxidation reaction.

Basic Combustion Equation

For Carbon (in coal/charcoal):

C + O₂ → CO₂ + Heat + Light

For Hydrocarbons (in petroleum):

Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Heat + Light

Example - Methane combustion:

CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + Energy

Essential Requirements for Combustion

Combustion requires three components (Fire Triangle):

1. Fuel - The combustible substance (coal, petrol, wood, etc.)
2. Oxygen (Air) - Supporter of combustion
3. Ignition Temperature - Minimum temperature to start burning

Remove any one of these, and combustion stops.

Ignition Temperature

Definition: The minimum temperature at which a substance catches fire and starts burning is called its ignition temperature.

Key Points:

• Different substances have different ignition temperatures
• A substance cannot catch fire below its ignition temperature
• White phosphorus has very low ignition temperature (~35°C) - highly inflammable
• Iron has very high ignition temperature - not easily combustible

Inflammable Substances: Substances with very low ignition temperature that easily catch fire (petrol, alcohol, LPG, kerosene)

Types of Combustion

1. Rapid Combustion

• Definition: Combustion in which gas burns rapidly producing heat and light
• Characteristics:
  • Fast reaction
  • Produces immediate heat and light
  • Controlled burning
• Examples:
  • Gas stove burning
  • Candle flame
  • Matchstick lighting

2. Slow Combustion

• Definition: Combustion that takes place slowly at low temperatures
• Characteristics:
  • Gradual heat release
  • No visible flames initially
  • Takes longer time
• Examples:
  • Rusting of iron (oxidation)
  • Digestion of food (biological oxidation)
  • Coal burning in a chimney

3. Spontaneous Combustion

• Definition: Type of combustion where material suddenly bursts into flames without any apparent external cause
• Characteristics:
  • No external heating required
  • Self-heating occurs
  • Sudden ignition
• Examples:
  • Coal dust piles (self-heating due to internal oxidation)
  • White phosphorus in air
  • Hay stacks (microbial activity generates heat)
  • Forest fires during extreme heat

4. Explosion

• Definition: Very rapid combustion with sudden release of heat, light, and sound
• Characteristics:
  • Instantaneous reaction
  • Large amount of gas and energy produced
  • Creates shock waves (sound)
  • Can cause damage
• Examples:
  • Firecrackers
  • Bomb blast
  • LPG cylinder explosion
  • Hydrogen-oxygen mixture ignition

Complete vs Incomplete Combustion

Complete Combustion

• Condition: Sufficient supply of oxygen
• Products: CO₂ + H₂O + Maximum heat
• Flame: Clean, blue flame
• Efficiency: High - all fuel is burned
• Example: LPG burning in a properly adjusted stove

Fuel + Sufficient O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Maximum Heat

Incomplete Combustion

• Condition: Insufficient supply of oxygen (limited air)
• Products: CO (carbon monoxide) + C (soot) + Less heat
• Flame: Yellow, smoky flame
• Efficiency: Low - fuel partially burned
• Danger: Produces toxic carbon monoxide (CO)
• Example: Wood burning in enclosed space

Fuel + Insufficient O₂ → CO + C (soot) + Less Heat

Dangers of Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is an extremely dangerous gas produced during incomplete combustion:

• Colorless and odorless - cannot be detected by senses
• Toxic - binds to hemoglobin in blood, preventing oxygen transport
• Symptoms of poisoning: Headache, dizziness, nausea, unconsciousness, death
• Sources: Faulty gas heaters, vehicle exhaust in closed garages, burning coal in closed rooms
• Prevention: Ensure proper ventilation, regular maintenance of combustion appliances

Flame Zones and Temperature

A flame has distinct zones with different temperatures and combustion characteristics.

Structure of a Candle Flame

Zone 1: Dark Inner Zone (Innermost)

• Location: Around the wick
• Temperature: Lowest (~600°C - 800°C)
• Characteristics:
  • Contains unburnt wax vapors
  • No combustion occurs here
  • Black in appearance
  • Presence of unburnt carbon particles
• Reason: Insufficient oxygen supply

Zone 2: Luminous Zone (Middle)

• Location: Surrounding the dark zone
• Temperature: Moderate (~1000°C - 1200°C)
• Characteristics:
  • Bright yellow color
  • Provides maximum light
  • Contains partially burnt carbon particles (glow due to heat)
  • Incomplete combustion occurs
• Why Yellow? Hot carbon particles emit yellow light (incandescence)

Zone 3: Non-Luminous Zone (Outer)

• Location: Outermost part of flame
• Temperature: Highest (~1400°C)
• Characteristics:
  • Blue color (may not be clearly visible)
  • Complete combustion occurs
  • Maximum heat produced
  • No light emission (non-luminous)
• Reason: Complete supply of oxygen available

Luminous vs Non-Luminous Flames

Fire Control and Fire Extinguishers

Understanding combustion helps us control and extinguish fires effectively.

Methods to Control Fire

To stop combustion, we must remove one or more elements of the fire triangle:

1. Remove/Cut Off Fuel Supply
   • Turn off gas valve
   • Remove combustible materials nearby
   • Create firebreaks in forest fires
2. Cut Off Oxygen Supply
   • Cover burning object with blanket or sand
   • Close doors/windows to reduce air flow
   • Use CO₂ or foam to displace oxygen
3. Cool Below Ignition Temperature
   • Pour water to absorb heat
   • Use chemical cooling agents

Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers work by removing one or more combustion requirements. Different types are used for different fire classes.

1. Water-Based Extinguishers

• Principle: Cooling effect - brings temperature below ignition point
• Suitable For: Wood, paper, cloth fires (Class A)
• Not Suitable For:
  • Oil/petrol fires (water sinks, oil floats and spreads)
  • Electrical fires (water conducts electricity - risk of electrocution)

2. Soda-Acid Fire Extinguisher

Construction:

• Metallic cylinder filled with sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) solution
• Sealed glass tube containing concentrated sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄)
• Plunger with sharp end to break glass tube
• Nozzle sealed with wax

Working Mechanism:

• Hit plunger against floor
• Sharp tip breaks glass tube
• Acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate
• Chemical reaction:

 2NaHCO₃ + H₂SO₄ → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O + 2CO₂↑

• Carbon dioxide gas generated creates pressure
• Wax seal breaks
• CO₂ + solution sprayed through nozzle
• CO₂ cuts off oxygen supply

Suitable For: Wood, paper, cloth fires (Class A)

Limitations:

• Cannot be used for oil/petrol fires (solution is denser than oil, sinks below)
• Cannot be used for electrical fires (solution conducts electricity)

3. Foam-Type Fire Extinguisher

Construction:

• Similar to soda-acid extinguisher
• Contains sodium bicarbonate solution + saponin (foaming agent)
• Contains aluminum sulphate [Al₂(SO₄)₃] instead of sulphuric acid

Working Mechanism:

• Chemical reaction:

 Al₂(SO₄)₃ + 6NaHCO₃ → 3Na₂SO₄ + 2Al(OH)₃ + 6CO₂↑

• Saponin creates stable foam
• Foam + CO₂ expelled through nozzle
• Foam blanket covers fire surface
• Prevents oxygen contact
• Foam floats on oil/petrol surface

Suitable For:

• Oil, petrol, alcohol fires (Class B)
• Inflammable liquid fires

Limitation:

• Cannot be used for electrical fires

4. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Fire Extinguisher

Construction:

• Steel cylinder containing liquid CO₂ under high pressure
• Horn/cone-shaped nozzle
• Pressure release mechanism

Working Mechanism:

• CO₂ stored as liquid under pressure
• When released, converts to gas + solid (dry ice)
• CO₂ is heavier than air
• Forms blanket over fire
• Displaces oxygen
• Also provides cooling effect

Advantages:

• Non-conductor of electricity - safe for electrical fires
• Leaves no residue - no damage to equipment
• Suitable for multiple fire types

Suitable For:

• Electrical fires (Class C)
• Oil/petrol fires (Class B)
• General combustible materials (Class A)

Why CO₂ is Effective:

• Does not support combustion
• Heavier than air (density ~1.98 times air)
• Non-toxic at low concentrations
• Readily available

Fire Safety Tips for Home and Travel

At Home:

• Keep fire extinguisher accessible
• Never leave cooking unattended
• Store inflammable liquids safely
• Check gas connections regularly
• Install smoke detectors
• Keep emergency numbers handy

While Driving:

• Regular vehicle maintenance
• Don't smoke while refueling
• Turn off engine during refueling
• Keep fire extinguisher in vehicle

PCRA Tips (Petroleum Conservation Research Association):

1. Drive at constant, moderate speed
2. Switch off engine at traffic lights
3. Maintain correct tire pressure
4. Ensure regular vehicle maintenance
5. Use public transport when possible
6. Carpool to reduce fuel consumption

Calorific Value of Fuels

Calorific value is the amount of heat energy produced when 1 kilogram of a fuel is completely burnt.

Definition and Unit

Unit: Kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg) or kilowatt per kilogram (kW/kg)

Importance:

• Determines fuel efficiency
• Higher calorific value = more efficient fuel
• Helps compare different fuels
• Critical for economic and practical fuel selection

Calorific Value Comparison Table

Factors Affecting Calorific Value

1. Carbon Content: Higher carbon = higher calorific value
2. Hydrogen Content: Hydrogen has highest calorific value among elements
3. Moisture Content: Higher moisture = lower effective calorific value
4. Oxygen Content: Higher oxygen = lower calorific value
5. Ash Content: Inorganic matter that doesn't burn reduces efficiency

Why LPG is Preferred Over Wood

1. Efficiency: LPG produces ~3 times more heat per kg than wood
2. Convenience: No ash, easy to control
3. Cleanliness: No smoke, no soot
4. Storage: Compact cylinders vs bulky wood
5. Environmental: Less deforestation, lower emissions

Fuel Efficiency Formula

The concept of fuel efficiency can be understood through:

Heat Efficiency = (Useful Heat Output / Heat Input from Fuel) × 100%

Where Heat Input = Mass of Fuel × Calorific Value

Fuel Conservation: Why and How

Why We Need to Conserve Fuels

1. Exhaustible Nature

• Fossil fuels took millions of years to form
• Cannot be replenished in human timescales
• Current reserves limited

2. Increasing Demand

• Population growth
• Industrialization
• Rising transportation needs
• Higher standard of living

3. Environmental Protection

• Reduce carbon emissions
• Combat climate change
• Decrease air pollution
• Protect ecosystems

4. Economic Reasons

• Rising fuel prices
• Energy security
• Reduce import dependence
• Cost savings for households and industries

5. Sustainable Future

• Ensure availability for future generations
• Time to develop alternative energy sources
• Smooth transition to renewable energy

Conservation Strategies

Personal Level

Transportation:

1. Use public transport
2. Carpool/rideshare
3. Walk or cycle for short distances
4. Maintain vehicle properly
5. Drive at moderate, steady speeds
6. Switch off engine at long signals
7. Plan trips to reduce unnecessary travel

Home:

1. Use energy-efficient appliances
2. Reduce electricity consumption (much electricity is generated from fossil fuels)
3. Use LED bulbs instead of incandescent
4. Proper insulation to reduce heating/cooling needs
5. Solar water heaters
6. Switch off lights and fans when not needed

Cooking:

1. Use pressure cookers (reduce cooking time)
2. Keep lids on pots while cooking
3. Match flame size to pot size
4. Regular maintenance of gas stoves

Industrial and National Level

1. Promote Renewable Energy
   • Solar power
   • Wind energy
   • Hydroelectric power
   • Biomass energy
2. Improve Public Transport
   • Expand metro rail networks
   • Better bus services
   • Encourage electric vehicles
3. Energy-Efficient Technology
   • Hybrid vehicles
   • Electric vehicles
   • More efficient industrial processes
4. Policy Measures
   • Fuel efficiency standards
   • Carbon taxes
   • Incentives for renewable energy
   • Awareness campaigns (like PCRA)
5. Alternative Fuels Development
   • Biofuels (biodiesel, ethanol)
   • Hydrogen fuel cells
   • CNG/LPG infrastructure expansion

Key Chemical Formulas and Reactions

Important Chemical Reactions Table

Summary Mind Map

COAL AND PETROLEUM
│
├── FOSSIL FUELS
│ ├── Exhaustible Natural Resources
│ ├── Formed from dead organisms
│ └── Take millions of years to form
│
├── COAL
│ ├── Formation: Carbonisation (300 million years)
│ ├── Types: Lignite → Sub-bituminous → Bituminous → Anthracite
│ ├── Products: Coke, Coal Tar, Coal Gas
│ └── Uses: Electricity, Steel, Industrial fuel
│
├── PETROLEUM
│ ├── Formation: From marine organisms (100-200 million years)
│ ├── Refining: Fractional Distillation
│ ├── Products: LPG, Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene, Lubricants, Bitumen
│ ├── Petrochemicals: Plastics, Fibers, Detergents, Fertilizers
│ └── Natural Gas (CNG): Cleanest fossil fuel
│
├── COMBUSTION
│ ├── Types: Rapid, Slow, Spontaneous, Explosion
│ ├── Requirements: Fuel + Oxygen + Ignition Temperature
│ ├── Complete vs Incomplete
│ └── Fire Control: Water, CO₂, Foam, Cutting oxygen/fuel
│
├── ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
│ ├── Air Pollution (CO₂, CO, SO₂, NOₓ, particulates)
│ ├── Acid Rain
│ ├── Global Warming
│ └── Health Problems
│
└── CONSERVATION
 ├── Use efficiently (PCRA tips)
 ├── Alternative fuels (CNG, LPG)
 ├── Renewable energy (Solar, Wind)
 └── Sustainable practices