Biodiversity

Nutrient Cycling

Organisms need a constant supply of nutrients to grow, reproduce and regulate various body functions. The amount of nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc., present in the soil at any given time, is referred to as the standing state. It varies in different kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.

It is important to appreciate that nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems, they are recycled time and again indefinitely. The movement of nutrient elements through the various components of an ecosystem is called nutrient cycling. Another name of nutrient cycling is biogeochemical cycles (bio: living organism, geo: rocks, air, water).

Also Check: Class 12 Ecosystem

Simplified model of carbon cycle in the biosphere

Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and (b) sedimentary.

The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle) exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and phosphorus cycle), the reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperature etc., regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the reservoir is to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.

You have made a detailed study of nitrogen cycle in class XI. Here we discuss carbon and phosphorus cycles.

Ecosystem – Carbon Cycle: In living organisms, carbon constitutes 49 per cent of dry weight of organisms and is next only to water. Out of the total quantity of global carbon, 71 per cent carbon is found dissolved in oceans. This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Fossil fuel also represent a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and through living and dead organisms. According to one estimate 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually. A considerable amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as CO2 through respiratory activities of the producers and consumers.

Decomposers also contribute substantially to CO2 pool by their processing of waste materials and dead organic matter of land or oceans. Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation. 

Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuel, volcanic activity are additional sources for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.

Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle. Rapid deforestation and massive burning of fossil fuel for energy and transport have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Ecosystem – Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy transfer systems. Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth. 

The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of phosphates. When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and are absorbed by the roots of the plants. 

Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants. The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed by phosphate-solublising bacteria releasing phosphorus. Unlike carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere. 

A simplified model of phosphorus cycling in a terrestrial ecosystem

The other two major and important differences between carbon and phosphorus cycle are firstly, atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs, and, secondly, gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.

Ecosystem Service:  Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of economic, environmental and aesthetic goods and services. The products of ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services, for example, healthy forest ecosystems purify air and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat, maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. Though value of such services of biodiversity is difficult to determine, it seems reasonable to think that biodiversity should carry a hefty price tag.

Robert Constanza and his colleagues have very recently tried to put price tags on nature’s life-support services. Researchers have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental ecosystems services, which are largely taken for granted because they are free. This is nearly twice the value of the global gross national product GNP which is (US $ 18 trillion).

Out of the total cost of various ecosystem services, the soil formation accounts for about 50 per cent, and contributions of other services like recreation and nutrient cycling, are less than 10 per cent each. The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are about 6 per cent each.

Biodiversity

• The term biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region.
• Biodiversity loss is now one of the world's most pressing crisis. The primary reason for the concern is the realization that biological diversity is being lost even before its size is known.
• According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million.
• The common man would find it hard to believe that there are more than 20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of beetles, 28,000 species of fishes and nearly 20,000 species of orchids.

The predicted number of total species averages at 1.7 million. About 61 per cent of the known species are insects. Only 4650 species of mammals are known to science. A large number of plant species (2,70,000) and vertebrates(53239) are known. Coral reefs and tropical forests are major regions expected to have a large number of species still unknown to man.

 How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many in India?

• According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million, but we have no clear idea of how many species are yet to be discovered and described. Estimates vary widely and many of them are only educated guesses. 
• For many taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete in temperate than in tropical countries. Considering that an overwhelmingly large proportion of the species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics, biologists make a statistical comparison of the temperate-tropical species richness of an exhaustively studied group of insects and extrapolate this ratio to other groups of animals and plants to come up with a gross estimate of the total number of species on earth. 
• Some extreme estimates range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative and scientifically sound estimate made by Robert May places the global species diversity at about 7 million.
• More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants (including algae, fungi, bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms) comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total. 
• Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per cent of the total. That means, out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects. 
• The number of fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals

Representing global biodiversity: proportionate number of species of major taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates

• These estimates do not give any figures for prokaryotes. Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species there might be. The problem is that conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for identifying microbial species and many species are simply not culturable under laboratory conditions. If we accept biochemical or molecular criteria for delineating species for this group, then their diversity alone might run into millions.
• Although India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent. That is what makes our country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world. Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been recorded from India. 
• If we accept May’s global estimates, only 22 per cent of the total species have been recorded so far. Applying this proportion to India’s diversity figures, we estimate that there are probably more than 1,00,000 plant species and more than 3,00, 000 animal species yet to be discovered and described. 

Table : Approximate numbers of species which have been

Described and identified from all over the world.

Group	Numbers of species
Higher Plants	2,70,000
Algae	40,000
Fungi	72,000
Bacteria (including cyanobacteria)	4,000
Viruses	1,550
Mammals	4,650
Birds	9,700
Reptiles	7,150
Fish	28,000
Amphibians	4,7 80
Insects	10,25,000
Crustaceans	43,000
Molluscs	70,000
Nematodes and worms	25,000
Protozoa	40,000
Ants	20,000
Beetles	3,00,000
Orchids	20,000
Others	1,10,000

BIODIVERSITY: In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the species level but at all levels of biological organisation ranging from macromolecules within cells to biomes. Biodiversity is the term popularized by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson to describe the combined diversity at all the levels of biological organisation.

Levels of Biodiversity

Biological diversity includes three hierarchical levels :

(i)Genetic diversity

(ii)Species diversity

(iii)Community and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic diversity : Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species; the differences could be in alleles, in entire genes (the traits determining particular characteristics) or in chromosomal structures. The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection.

The amount of genetic variation is the basis of speciation (evolution of new species). It has a key role in the maintenance of diversity at species and community levels. Genetic diversity of a community will be greater if there are many species.

A single species might show high diversity at the genetic level over its distributional range. The genetic variation shown by the medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in different Himalayan ranges might be in terms of the potency and concentration of the active chemical (reserpine) that the plant produces. India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice, and 1000 varieties of mango.

Lower genetic diversity within a species or variety may be useful for uniformity in yield and higher yield but is prone to mass destruction by pests/pathogens.

Species diversity: Species are distinct units of diversity. Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. Simplest measure of species diversity is Species richness, i.e., the number of species per unit area. The number of species increases with the area of the site. Another measure of diversity is species evenness which is number of individuals of different species.

In nature, both the number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals per species vary, leading to greater diversity. For example, the Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats in India.

Ecosystem diversity: Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem has three perspectives. Alpha diversity (within- community diversity), Beta diversity (between-community diversity). Diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area is called Gamma diversity.

Ecosystem diversity describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various ecological processes that sustain energy flow.

At the ecosystem level, India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian country like Norway.

It has taken millions of years of evolution, to accumulate this rich diversity in nature, but we could lose all that wealth in less than two centuries if the present rates of species losses continue. Biodiversity and its conservation are now vital environmental issues of international concern as more and more people around the world begin to realize the critical importance of biodiversity for our survival and well- being on this planet.

Biogeographical regions of India are:

1. Trans Himalayas
2. Himalayas
3. Desert
4. Semi arid
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. Gangetic Plain
8. Coasts
9. North East
10. Islands

Deccan Peninsula has the most extensive coverage of the Indian landmass about 42 percent.

• About 33% flowering plants recorded in India are endemic to our country.
• 10% mammalian fauna are endemic to India.
• The most biodiversity rich regions are Western Ghats (area 4%) and North East (area 5.2%).

Patterns of Biodiversity

Latitudinal and altitudinal gradients : The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform throughout the world but shows a rather uneven distribution. For many group of animals or plants, there are interesting patterns in diversity, the most well- known being the latitudinal gradient in diversity. 

• In general, species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the poles. With very few exceptions, tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5° N to 23.5° S) harbour more species than temperate or polar areas. Columbia located near the equator has nearly 1,400 species of birds while New York at 41° N has 105 species and Greenland at 71° N only 56 species. India, with much of its land area in the tropical latitudes, has more than 1,200 species of birds. 
• A forest in a tropical region like Equador has up to 10 times as many species of vascular plants as a forest of equal area in a temperate region like the Midwest of the USA. 
• The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest biodiversity on earth- it is home to more than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of fishes, 1,300 of birds, 427 of mammals, 427 of amphibians, 378 of reptiles and of more than 1,25,000 invertebrates. Scientists estimate that in these rain forests there might be at least two million insect species waiting to be discovered and named. 
• A decrease in species diversity occurs as we ascend a high mountain due to drop in temperature and greater seasonal variability.

Why tropical region has more diversity

Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have proposed various hypotheses; some important ones are 

• Speciation is generally a function of time, unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years and thus, had a long evolutionary time for species diversification.
• Tropical environments, unlike temperate ones, are less seasonal, relatively more constant and predictable. Such constant environments promote niche specialisation and lead to a greater species diversity.
• There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to higher productivity; this in turn might contribute indirectly to greater diversity. 

Species-Area relationships : During his pioneering and extensive explorations in the wilderness of South American jungles, the great German naturalist and geographer Alexander von Humboldt observed that within a region species richness increased with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit. In fact, the relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa (angiosperm plants, birds, bats, freshwater fishes) turns out to be a rectangular hyperbola Figure. 

On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described by the equation 

log S = log C + Z log A 

where S= Species richness 

A= Area 

Z = slope of the line (regression coefficient)

C = Y-intercept 

Showing species area relationship.

Note that on log scale the relationship becomes linear

• Ecologists have discovered that the value of Z lies in the range of 0.1 to 0.2, regardless of the taxonomic group or the region (whether it is the plants in Britain, birds in California or molluscs in New York state, the slopes of the regression line are amazingly similar). 
• But, if you analyse the species-area relationships among very large areas like the entire continents, you will find that the slope of the line to be much steeper (Z values in the range of 0.6 to 1.2). For example, for frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and mammals in the tropical forests of different continents, the slope is found to be 1.15.

The importance of Species Diversity to the Ecosystem

• For many decades, ecologists believed that communities with more species, generally, tend to be more stable than those with less species. What exactly is stability for a biological community? A stable community should not show too much variation in productivity from year to year; it must be either resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or man-made), and it must also be resistant to invasions by alien species. 
• David Tilman’s long-term ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots provide some tentative answers. Tilman found that plots with more species showed less year-to-year variation in total biomass. He also showed that in his experiments, increased diversity contributed to higher productivity. Rich biodiversity is not only essential for ecosystem health but imperative for the very survival of the human race on this planet. 
• At a time when we are losing species at an alarming pace, one might ask– Does it really matter to us if a few species become extinct? Would Western Ghats ecosystems be less functional if one of its tree frog species is lost forever? How is our quality of life affected if, say, instead of 20,000 we have only 15,000 species of ants on earth?
• There are no direct answers to such näive questions but we can develop a proper perspective through an analogy (the ‘rivet popper hypothesis’) used by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich. In an airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together using thousands of rivets (species). If every passenger travelling in it starts popping a rivet to take home (causing a species to become extinct), it may not affect flight safety (proper functioning of the ecosystem) initially, but as more and more rivets are removed, the plane becomes dangerously weak over a period of time. Furthermore, which rivet is removed may also be critical. Loss of rivets on the wings (key species that drive major ecosystem functions) is obviously a more serious threat to flight safety than loss of a few rivets on the seats or windows inside the plane.

Loss of Biodiversity

• The biological wealth of our planet has been declining rapidly and the accusing finger is clearly pointing to human activities. 
• The colonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by humans is said to have led to the extinction of more than 2,000 species of native birds. 
• The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (including 338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 years. 
• Some examples of recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger. The last twenty years alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species. 
• Careful analysis of records shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction. Adding to the grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species world-wide are facing the threat of extinction. Presently, 12 per cent of all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32 per cent of all amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in the world face the threat of extinction. 
• From a study of the history of life on earth through fossil records, it is learned that large-scale loss of species like the one we are currently witnessing have also happened earlier, even before humans appeared on the scene. During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass extinction of species. 
• ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress different from the previous episodes? The difference is in the rates; the current species extinction rates are estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than in the pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the faster rates. Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped out within the next 100 years.
• In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in plant production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought and (c) increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use, and pest and disease cycles.

Causes of biodiversity losses: The accelerated rates of species extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human activities. There are four major causes (‘ TheEvil Quartet ’).

Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most important cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The most dramatic examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these rain forests now cover no more than 6 per cent. They are being destroyed fast. 

• The Amazon rain forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’) harbouring probably millions of species is being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beansor for conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle. Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by pollution also threatens the survival of many species. When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population declines.

Over-exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature for food and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources. Many species extinctions in the last 500 years (Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon) were due to overexploitation by humans. Presently many marine fish populations around the world are over harvested, endangering the continued existence of some commercially important species.

Alien species invasions: When alien species are introduced unintentionally or deliberately for whatever purpose, some of them turn invasive, and cause decline or extinction of indigenous species. 

• The Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of Cichlid fish in the lake. 
• Environmental damage has been caused and threat posed to our native species by invasive weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantanaand water hyacinth (Eicchornia). The recent illegal introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinusfor aquaculture purposes is posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

(iv) Co-extinctions: When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it in an obligatory way also become extinct. 

• When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of parasites also meets the same fate. 
• Another example is the case of a coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism as in Yucca and Pronuba moth where extinction of one will invariably lead to the extinction of the other.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Why Should We Conserve Biodiversity?

There are many reasons, some obvious and others not so obvious, but all equally important. They can be grouped into three categories: narrowly utilitarian, broadly utilitarian, and ethical.

The narrowly utilitarian arguments for conserving biodiversity are obvious; humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood, fibre, construction material, industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and products of medicinal importance.

• More than 25 per cent of the drugs currently sold in the market worldwide are derived from plants and 25,000 species of plants contribute to the traditional medicines used by native people around the world. Nobody knows how many more medicinally useful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to be explored.
• With increasing resources put into ‘bioprospecting’ (exploring molecular, genetic and species-level diversity for products of economic importance), nations endowed with rich biodiversity can expect to reap enormous benefits. 

The broadly utilitarian argument says that biodiversity plays a major role in many ecosystem services that nature provides. 

• The fast dwindling Amazon forest is estimated to produce, through photosynthesis, 20 per cent of the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere. 
• Pollination (without which plants cannot give us fruits or seeds) is another service, ecosystems provide through pollinators – bees, bumblebees, birds and bats. 
• There are other intangible benefits – that we derive from nature–the aesthetic pleasures of walking through thick woods, watching spring flowers in full bloom or waking up to a bulbul’s song in the morning. 

The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we owe to millions of plant, animal and microbe species with whom we share this planet. Philosophically or spiritually, we need to realise that every species has an intrinsic value, even if it may not be of current or any economic value to us. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future generations.

How do we conserve Biodiversity?

When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected; we save the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in situ(on site) conservation. However, when there are situations where an animal or plant is endangered or threatened and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex situ(off site) conservation is the desirable approach.

In situ CONSERVATION

• Faced with the conflict between development and conservation, many nations find it unrealistic and economically not feasible to conserve all their biological wealth. Invariably, the number of species waiting to be saved from extinction far exceeds the conservation resources available. 
• On a global basis, this problem has been addressed by eminent conservationists. They identified for maximum protection certain ‘biodiversity hotspots’ regions with very high levels of species richness and high degree of endemism (that is, species confined to that region and not found anywhere else). Initially 25 biodiversity hotspots were identified but subsequently nine more have been added to the list, bringing the total number of biodiversity hotspots in the world to 34. 
• These hotspots are also regions of accelerated habitat loss. Three of these hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya – cover our country’s exceptionally high biodiversity regions. Although all the biodiversity hotspots put together cover less than 2 percent of the earth’s land area, the number of species they collectively harbour is extremely high and strict protection of these hotspots could reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 per cent.
• In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries. 
• India has also a history of religious and cultural traditions that emphasised protection of nature. In many cultures, tracts of forest were set aside, and all the trees and wildlife within were venerated and given total protection. Such sacred groves are found in Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh. 
• In Meghalaya, the sacred groves are the last refuges for a large number of rare and threatened plants. 

Ex situ CONSERVATION

• In this approach, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected and given special care. 
• Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife safari parks serve this purpose. There are many animals that have become extinct in the wild but continue to be maintained in zoological parks. 
• In recent years ex situ conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species in enclosures. Now gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition for long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilised in vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds of different genetic strains of commercially important plants can be kept for long periods in seed banks.
• Biodiversity knows no political boundaries and its conservation is therefore a collective responsibility of all nations. The historic Convention on Biological Diversity (‘The Earth Summit’) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, called upon all nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilisation of its benefits. 
• In a follow-up, the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010, a significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local levels.

Biosphere Reserves

• They are large tracts of protected land with multiple use preserving the genetic diversity of representative ecosystem by protecting wild life, traditional life styles of the tribals and varied plant and animal genetic resources.
• They have been set up under MAB program of UNESCO. A total of 408 biosphere reserves are to be set up in 94 countries.

Fig.: The zonation in a terrestiral Biosphere Reserve

Each biosphere reserve has 

1. Core Zone, No human activity is permitted
2. Buffer Zone. Limited human activity is allowed. 
3. Manipulation Zone. All types of human activities which do not disturb ecology are allowed.

International and national efforts to conserve Biodiversity

Earth summit (1992) at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, promoted Convention on Biological diversity which was signed by 152 nations. Agenda 21 is a blue print for encouraging sustainable development of diversity through social, economic and environmental measures in the 21st Century. It was formulated during the Earth summit. NGOs like Green Peace provide international support for conservation. WWF or World Wide Fund and World Conservation Union are organizations working for conservation of biodiversity.

Convention in International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) has helped to restrict poaching and loss of rare species. In India in situ conservation is undertaken by ministry of environment and forest. Major ex situ conservation of biodiversity is being managed by National Bureau of Plant, Animal and Fish Genetic Resources.

Silviculture is the management of forests or woodlands for production of timber and wood products. Chipko movement started by Sundar Lal Bahuguna and Appiko movement of Karnataka both resisted deforestation.

Red Data Book contains a record of animals and plants known to be in danger and is maintained by IUCN. IUCN is International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources with its headquarters at Morges, Switzerland. It is now called World Conservation Union (WCU). The red list maintained in the red data book has 8 categories of species:

1. Extinct: e.g. Dodo
2. Extinct in WildCritically endangered: In India (18 animals and 44 plants) e.g. Pygmy Hog, Podophyllum etc

• Endangered: (In India 54 animals and 113 plants) e.g. Red Panda, Blue Whale, Lemur Idri idri of Madagascar, Asiatic Wild Ass of Kutch, Lion Tailed Macaque etc. 
• Vulnerable: (In India 143 animals and 87 plants) e.g. Black Buck.
• Lower Risk: (In India 109 animals and 73 plants)
• Data deficiency
• Not evaluated

Other than the above categories the list also includes 

1. Rare species. E.g. Clouded Leopard of Himalayas, Hawaiian Monk Seal, Great Indian Bustard of Gujarat and Rajasthan etc.
2. Indeterminate species. E.g. Three Banded Armadillo of Brazil, Short Eared Rabbit of Sumatra, Mexican Prairie Dog etc.

Biosphere Reserves of India

Now India has 18 biosphere reserves which are as follows:

S.No.	Name	Location	State	Type	Key Fauna
1.	Great Rann of Kutch	Part of Kutch, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Patan Districts	Gujarat	Desert	Indian Wild Ass
2.	Gulf of Mannar	Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending from Rameswaram island in the North to Kanyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka	Tamil Nadu	Coasts	Dugong or Sea Cow
3.	Sundarbans	Part of delta of Ganges and Barahamaputra river system	West Bengal	Gangetic Delta	Royal Bengal Tiger
4.	Cold Desert	Pin Valley National Park and surroundings;Chandratal and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Sancturary	Himachal Pradesh	WesternHimalayas	Snow Leopard
5.	Nandadevi	Parts of Chamoli District, Pithoragarh District & Bageshwar District	Uttarakhand	WesternHimalayas
6.	Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve	Part of Waynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur,Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills	Tamil Nadu,Kerala andKarnataka	Western Ghats	Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-tailed macaque
7.	Dihang-Dibang	Part of Siang and Dibang Valley	Arunachal Pradesh	Eastern Himalaya
8.	Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve	Parts of Betul District, Hoshangabad District and Chhindwara District	Madhya Pradesh	Semi-Arid	Giant Squirrel, Flying Squirrel
9.	Seshachalam Hills	Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts	Andhra Pradesh	Eastern Ghats
10.	Simlipal	Part of Mayurbhanj district	Odisha	Deccan Peninsula	Gaur, Royal Bengal Tiger, Wild elephant
11.	Achanakamar -Amarkantak	Part of Annupur, Dindori and Bilaspur districts	Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh	Maikala Range
12.	Manas	Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup andDarrang Districts	Assam	East Himalayas	Golden Langur, Red Panda
13.	Khangchendzonga	Parts of Kanchanjunga Hills	Sikkim	East Himalayas	Snow Leopard, Red Panda
14.	Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve	Neyyar, Peppara and Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary and their adjoining areas	Kerala, Tamil Nadu	Western ghats	Nilgiri Tahr, Elephants
15.	Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve	Southern most islands of Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	Islands	Saltwater Crocodile
16.	Nokrek	Part of Garo Hills	Meghalaya	East Himalayas	Red Panda
17.	Dibru-Saikhowa	Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts	Assam	East Himalayas	Golden Langur
18.	Panna	Part of Panna and Chattarpur Districts	Madhya Pradesh	catchment area of the Ken River	tiger, chital, chinkara, sambhar and sloth bear

Important National Parks and Sanctuaries of India

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

1. Barren Island Sanctuary (Bay of Bengal)
2. Mount Harriet National Park
3. North Reef Island Sanctuary (Bay of Bengal)
4. Saddle Peak National Park (Bay of Bengal)
5. South Button Island National Park (Andaman)

Andhra Pradesh

1. Coringa Sanctuary (East Godavari)
2. Kolleru Sanctuary (West Godavari)
3. Nagarjunasagar Srisailam/Ikshwaka Sanctuary (Guntur, Kurnool)
4. Neelapathu Sanctuary (Nellore)
5. Pakhal Sanctuary (Warangal)

Arunachal Pradesh

1. Itanagar Sanctuary
2. Namdapha National Park
3. Pakhui Sanctuary

Assam

1. Kaziranga National Park (Sibsagar and Nowgong)
2. Manas National Park (Barpeta)
3. Namdapha National Park

Bihar

1. Hazaribagh Sanctuary (Hazaribagh)
2. Palamau Sanctuary/National Park (Dalton Ganj), also part in Orissa
3. Rajgir Sanctuary

Chandigarh

1. Sukhana Lake Sanctuary

Delhi

1. Indira Priyadarshini Sanctuary

Goa

1. Bhagwan Mahavir Sanctuary/National Park

Gujarat

1. Gir National Park (Gir, Junagarh)
2. Marine National Park (Jamnagar)
3. Nalsorovar Sanctuary (Ahmedabad)

Haryana

1. Bhindawas Sanctuary
2. Sultanpur (Lake) Sanctuary (Gurgoan)

Himachal Pradesh

1. Great Himalayan National Park
2. Manali Sanctuary
3. Pin Valley National Park

Jammu & Kashmir

1. Dachigam Sanctuary/National Park (Srinagar)
2. Gulmarg Sanctuary
3. Karakoram Sanctuary
4. Kishtwar National Park (Srinagar)
5. Salim Ali National Park
6. Surinsar-Mansar Sanctuary

Karnataka

1. Bandipur National Park (Mysore)
2. Cauvery Sanctuary
3. Gataprabha Sanctuary (Belgaun)
4. Ranganathitti (Bird) Sanctuary (Mysore)

Kerala

1. Eravikulum National Park (Idukki)
2. Idukki Sanctuary (Idukki)
3. Neyyar Sanctuary
4. Periyar National Park (Idukki)
5. 5.Silent Valley National Park (Palaghat)

Madhya Pradesh

1. Bandhavgarh National Park (Shahdol)
2. Fossil National Park
3. Gandhi Sagar Sanctuary
4. Kanha National Park (Mandla and Balaghat)
5. Karera Sanctuary/Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
6. National Chambal Sanctuary
7. Panna National Park (Panna)
8. Pench National Park
9. Sanjay National Park (Sidhi and Surguja)
10. Satpura National Park (Hoshangabad)

Van Vihar National Park (Bhopal)

Maharashtra

1. Chandoli Sanctuary
2. Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary
3. Koyna Sanctuary
4. Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Mumbai)

Manipur

1. Siroy National Park (Manipur East)

Meghalaya

1. Balphakram National Park
2. Nokrek National Park

Mizoram

1. Dampa Sanctuary

Orissa

1. Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary (Balagoan)
2. Palamau National Park (also in Bihar)

Punjab

1. Abohar Sanctuary
2. Bir Motibagh Wild Life Sanctuary
3. Debrigarh Sanctuary

Rajasthan

1. Desert National Park (Jaiselmer and Barmer)
2. Jawahar Sagar Sanctuary
3. Keoladeo/Ghana Bird Sanctuary National Park
4. Mount Abu Sanctuary (Bharatpur)
5. National Gharial Sanctuary
6. Ramgarh Sanctuary
7. Ranthambore National Park (Savai Madhopur)
8. Sariska Sanctuary/National Park (Alwar)

Tamil Nadu

1. Anamalai Sanctuary (Coimbatore)
2. Guindy National Park (Madras)
3. Marine National Park (Gulf of Mannar)
4. Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary (Nilgiri)
5. Pulicat (Lake) Sanctuary

Uttaranchal

1. Corbett National Park (Nainital)-First to be established
2. Nanda Devi National Park (Chamoli)
3. Valley of Flowers National Park (Chamoli)

Uttar Pradesh

1. Chandraprabha Sanctuary (Varanasi)
2. Dudhwa National Park (Lakhimpur Kheri)
3. Hastinapur Sanctuary

West Bengal

1. Sunderbans Tiger Reserve/National Park (24-Parganas)